Tetanus is caused by a toxin released from Clostridium tetani bacteria and occurs worldwide. Tetanus bacteria are present in soil and manure and may be introduced through open wounds such as a puncture wound, burn or scratch.

Prevention

Travellers should thoroughly clean all wounds and seek medical attention for injuries such as animal bites/scratches, burns or wounds contaminated with soil.

Tetanus vaccination

• Travellers should have completed a tetanus vaccination course according to the UK schedule.
• If travelling to a country or area where medical facilities may be limited, a booster dose of a tetanus-containing vaccine is recommended if the last dose was more than ten years ago even if five doses of vaccine have been given previously.

Country-specific information on medical facilities may be found in the 'health' section of the FCDO foreign travel advice pages.

Tetanus in brief

Although rare, bat lyssaviruses (bat rabies) can be transmitted to humans or other animals following contact with the saliva of an infected bat most often by a bite. The disease can also be transmitted if the saliva of an infected bat gets into open wounds or mucous membranes (such as on the eye, nose or mouth). Bat lyssaviruses can cause disease in humans that is indistinguishable from rabies.

Symptoms can take some time to develop, but when they do the condition is almost always fatal.

The risk to most travellers is low. However, it is increased for certain occupations for example bat handlers and veterinarians, or certain activities such as caving.

Bat Lyssavirus in Sweden

Rabies has not been reported in this country; therefore most travellers are considered to be at low risk. However, bats may carry bat lyssavirus (bat rabies).

Prevention

• Travellers should avoid contact with bats. Bites from bats are frequently unrecognised. Rabies-like disease caused by bat lyssaviruses is preventable with prompt post-exposure rabies management.
• Following a possible exposure, wounds should be thoroughly cleansed and an urgent local medical assessment sought, even if the wound appears trivial. Although rabies has not been reported in other animals in this country, it is sensible to seek prompt medical advice if bitten or scratched. It is possible, although very rare for bats to pass rabies like viruses to other animals including pets.
• Post-exposure treatment and advice should be in accordance with national guidelines.

Rabies vaccination

• A full course of pre-exposure vaccines simplifies and shortens the course of post-exposure treatment and removes the need for rabies immunoglobulin which is in short supply world-wide.
• Pre-exposure rabies vaccinations are recommended for those who are at increased risk due to their work (e.g. laboratory staff working with the virus and those working with bats).
• Pre-exposure vaccines could be considered for those whose activities put them at increased risk of exposure to bats.

Rabies in brief

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infection spread by the bite of infected ticks. Occasionally cases of TBE occur after consumption of raw (unpasteurised) milk or dairy products from infected animals (e.g. cows, goats and sheep).

Travellers are at increased risk of exposure during outdoor activities in areas of vegetation such as gardens, parks, meadows, woods, forest fringes and glades. This includes urban parks and woodland areas in cities. Ticks are usually most active between early spring and late autumn.

Tick-borne encephalitis in Sweden

There is a risk of TBE in some areas of this country. The transmission season varies, however, ticks are most active during early spring to late autumn.

The main affected areas are in the regions near Stockholm on the East coast. Most cases are reported from regions of Södermanland, Stockholm, Uppsala, Vastmanland, Västra Götaland and Ostergotland.

Prevention

All travellers should avoid tick bites during outdoor activities, apply insect repellent frequently and follow tick bite avoidance advice.

Travellers should check their skin and clothes regularly for ticks and remove them as soon as possible with a recommended technique. Wearing light coloured clothes makes it easier to spot ticks.

Travellers should not eat or drink any unpasteurised milk products.

Tick-borne encephalitis vaccination

Vaccination is recommended for those visiting affected areas whose activities put them at increased risk including:

• Living in TBE risk areas.
• Working in forestry, woodcutting, farming and the military.
• Visiting forested areas and urban parks, e.g. camping, fieldwork, hiking and hunting.
• Laboratory workers who may be exposed to TBE.

Tick-borne encephalitis in brief

Insects or tick bites can cause irritation and infections of the skin at the site of a bite. They can also spread certain diseases.

Diseases in Western Europe

There is a risk of insect or tick-borne diseases in some areas of Western Europe. This includes diseases such as West Nile virus.

Prevention

• All travellers should avoid insect and tick bites day and night
• There are no vaccinations (or medications) to prevent these disease

Further information about specific insect or tick-borne diseases for this country can be found, if appropriate on this page, in other sections of the country information pages and the insect and tick bite avoidance factsheet.

Seasonal influenza is a viral infection of the respiratory tract and spreads easily from person to person via respiratory droplets when coughing and sneezing. Symptoms appear rapidly and include fever, muscle aches, headache, malaise (feeling unwell), cough, sore throat and a runny nose. In healthy individuals, symptoms improve without treatment within two to seven days. Severe illness is more common in those aged 65 years or over, those under 2 years of age, or those who have underlying medical conditions that increase their risk for complications of influenza.

Seasonal influenza in Sweden

Seasonal influenza occurs throughout the world. In the northern hemisphere (including the UK), most influenza occurs from as early as October through to March. In the southern hemisphere, influenza mostly occurs between April and September. In the tropics, influenza can occur throughout the year.

Prevention

All travellers should:

• Avoid close contact with symptomatic individuals
• Avoid crowded conditions where possible
• Wash their hands frequently
• Practise ‘cough hygiene’: sneezing or coughing into a tissue and promptly discarding it safely, and washing their hands
• Avoid travel if unwell with influenza-like symptoms
• A vaccine is available in certain circumstances (see below)*

*In the UK, seasonal influenza vaccine is offered routinely each year to those at higher risk of developing of severe disease following influenza infection, and certain additional groups such as healthcare workers and children as part of the UK national schedule (see information on vaccination). For those who do not fall into these groups, vaccination may be available privately.

If individuals at higher risk of severe disease following influenza infection are travelling to a country when influenza is likely to be circulating they should ensure they received a flu vaccination in the previous 12 months.

The vaccine used in the UK protects against the strains predicted to occur during the winter months of the northern hemisphere. It is not possible to obtain vaccine for the southern hemisphere in the UK, but the vaccine used during the UK influenza season should still provide important protection against strains likely to occur during the southern hemisphere influenza season, and in the tropics.

Avian influenza

Avian influenza viruses can rarely infect and cause disease in humans. Such cases are usually associated with close exposure to infected bird or animal populations. Where appropriate, information on these will be available in the outbreaks and news sections of the relevant country pages. Seasonal influenza vaccines will not provide protection against avian influenza.

Avian influenza in brief

Poor air quality is a significant public health problem in many parts of the world. Exposure to high levels of air pollution over short time periods (e.g. minutes/hours/days) and longer time periods (e.g. years) is linked to many different acute and chronic health problems. These effects are mainly on the respiratory (lungs and airways) and cardiovascular (heart function and blood circulation) systems.

Current information on world air quality is available from the world air quality index project.

Prevention

Travellers with health problems that might make them more vulnerable to the effects of air pollution who are travelling to areas of high pollution should:

• discuss their travel plans with their doctor, and carry adequate supplies of their regular medication.
• take sensible precautions to minimise their exposure to high levels of air pollution.
• check local air quality data and amend their activities accordingly.
• take notice of any health advisories published by the local Ministry of Health and Department for Environment, and follow the guidance provided.

It is unclear if face masks are beneficial at reducing exposure and may make breathing more difficult for those with pre-existing lung conditions. Those who choose to use one should make sure that the mask fits well and know how to wear it properly.

Outdoor air quality in brief